Hidden roots of reading: what infant brain studies reveal about later literacy difficulties

Key facts from the research

• Brain differences related to later reading skills can be detected as early as infancy and toddlerhood, before children ever see a school book.

• Longitudinal MRI studies show that patterns of brain connectivity in language and reading networks predict later language, pre‑literacy, and early reading outcomes.

• Some children appear to start school with a less optimal neural profile for learning to read, reflecting cumulative genetic, neural, cognitive, and environmental risk rather than a problem that suddenly appears after years of poor instruction.

• These findings strengthen the case for early, proactive screening and support in preschool and the early primary years, rather than waiting for children to “fail” first.

How early brain differences shape children’s pathways into reading success or difficulty​

Every year, thousands of children arrive at school already on the back foot with reading, long

before anyone has taught them a single letter. A growing body of brain research is revealing why. Longitudinal neuroimaging studies are showing that the roots of reading difficulties can often be traced back to differences in brain development that are present from infancy and toddlerhood, well before formal schooling begins.

These studies follow children over many years, combining MRI scans with detailed assessments of language, pre‑literacy skills, and later reading outcomes. Researchers have tracked how the brain’s language and reading networks develop from the first year of life into the early school years. The striking finding is that patterns of brain connectivity and activation in infancy already carry clues about how easily a child will learn to read later on.

For example, longitudinal work has shown that the strength and organization of connections in the infant language network predict later vocabulary and pre‑reading skills at school age. Other studies observing trajectories of brain development from birth through preschool link early brain measures to how well children decode words and develop early reading skills in the first years of school. Rather than being random snapshots, these patterns unfold over time, forming developmental “pathways” that either support or constrain learning to read.

Review papers pulling together multiple longitudinal studies show a similar picture. Children who later develop dyslexia or significant reading difficulties often show atypical development of white‑matter pathways and cortical regions involved in language and print processing even before they start reading instruction. In other words, some children are entering school with a neural system that is less efficiently tuned for the demands of learning to read, not because of laziness or poor parenting, but because of complex interactions between genetics, brain development, and environment.

This evidence has powerful implications for education. If early brain and behavioral markers of risk can be identified before children fall behind, schools and communities can shift from a “wait to fail” model to a genuinely preventative one. Researchers such as Nadine Gaab argue for systematic, developmentally appropriate screening in the preschool and early primary years, paired with evidence‑based, explicit instruction for children who show signs of vulnerability.

Early identification does not mean labelling toddlers or relying on brain scans in classrooms. Instead, it means using what this research teaches about developmental risk to design smarter policies: monitoring oral language and pre‑literacy skills from the early years, providing rich language environments, and offering timely, structured support. The message from the science is clear: by the time reading difficulties show up on a school report, the underlying vulnerabilities have often been present for years. Acting earlier gives many more children the chance to experience reading as something they can do, not something they fear.

References

Yu, X., Dunstan, J., Jacobson, S. W., Molteno, C. D., Lindinger, N. M., Turesky, T. K., Meintjes, E. M., Jacobson, J. L., & Gaab, N. (2022). Functional connectivity in infancy and toddlerhood predicts longitudinal language and preliteracy skills. Cerebral Cortex, 32(4), 725–738.​

Chyl, K., Kossowski, B., Dębska, A., Łuniewska, M., Banaszkiewicz, A., Zelechowska, A., … Jednoróg, K. (2021). Brain dynamics of (a)typical reading development: A review of longitudinal neuroimaging studies. NPJ Science of Learning, 6, 21.​

Turesky, T. K., et al. (2025). Longitudinal trajectories of brain development from infancy and preschool to early reading skills. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Advance online publication.

Tang, X., et al. (2024). Longitudinal associations between language network characteristics in the infant brain and school-age reading abilities. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 64, 101413.​

Ozernov-Palchik, O., & Gaab, N. (2016). Tackling the early identification of dyslexia with the help of neuroimaging. Perspectives on Language and Literacy, 42(1), 17–21.​

Gaab, N. (2024). Leveraging brain science for impactful advocacy and effective educational policies for children with dyslexia. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 33, 100214.

Gaab, N. (n.d.). Research on typical and atypical learning trajectories from infancy to adolescence. Harvard Graduate School of Education faculty profile.